Policymaking through the anthropological lens
Policy and ethics are shaped by distinct cultural ideologies, and it is important to focus on them to improve governmental techniques and attempt to universalise them
Like modern nation-states, policies intersect across every sector, influencing nearly every aspect of daily life. From birth to death, people are classified, shaped, and governed by policies that often go unnoticed. This makes the study of policy essential in anthropology, where policies are regarded as fundamentally anthropological phenomena.
By engaging "policy," anthropologists—especially political anthropologists—seek to understand shifts in political and cultural orders. Anthropological perspectives examine both the structures that govern policy and the discourses and agencies that shape them.
One key area of focus for anthropologists in policymaking is discourse analysis. Discourse is a cognitive process that highlights certain concepts while obscuring others. In discourse analysis, anthropologists are particularly interested in the "politics of discursive practices," which legitimise dominant discourses.
Governments often employ innovative tactics to validate policy discourses and, through hegemony, naturalise specific ideologies that leave little room for public dissent. The challenge, however, is that these powerful discourses frequently overlook the genuine needs of the population and rarely lead to meaningful improvement.
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Take poverty alleviation as an example. While reducing poverty is a laudable goal, equally important is the project's actual impact on the targeted community, their real needs, and their overall empowerment. In many developing countries, these critical issues are often ignored, where the exercise of power becomes a primary concern. In reality, poverty alleviation and development programs often mask the vested interests of those in power.
Governments typically impose such projects on communities where exerting authority is difficult—such as the Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh, where the residents have a unique lifestyle that resists easy control.
Ultimately, policies are multi-faceted and increasingly function as tools of governance and control.
Policy and ethics are shaped by distinct cultural ideologies, and upon examining their relationship, it becomes clear that both focus on governmental techniques and attempt to universalise them. Reflecting on this, Arthur Koestler describes policy as the "ghost in the machine"—giving life to the machinery of government and revitalising the often stagnant hands of bureaucracy.
Political anthropologists argue that every political party, whether democratic or totalitarian, faces a common challenge: how to solidify its legitimacy and maintain hegemony. Nation-states play a pivotal role in controlling populations, making issues like ethnic identity, citizenship, and personal freedoms particularly sensitive and critical for governments.
Agenda-setting is a key area of focus for anthropologists studying public policy. Understanding how a problem is defined is essential in analysing the agenda-setting process. Typically, problems are identified through feasibility analyses, which highlight economic, technological, political, and institutional limitations.
Using a bottom-up approach, anthropologists work closely with communities to identify these constraints. Agenda prioritisation is another vital factor in policy implementation. Anthropologists develop a sequence for addressing priorities, ensuring that the most pressing needs are met first.
Participatory action research is a technique that engages all relevant stakeholders in the policy process. This method allows anthropologists to map out the actual needs and demands of communities. The concept of priority typically stems from the idea that the most urgent needs should be addressed first.
Unfortunately, due to economic, technological, and other constraints, governments are often unable to implement all priorities simultaneously, making agenda prioritisation a pragmatic and necessary approach.
In this era of globalisation, political and economic interdependence among nation-states significantly influences national policymaking, including agenda-setting. Anthropologists, who often focus on the micro-level—particularly the grassroots—play a crucial role in analysing the effects of these processes.
Anthropological findings suggest that democracy is a fragile component in the globalised world, as international organisations like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) exert substantial influence on national agendas, forcing governments to coordinate their policies accordingly. These policies often align with neoliberal logic, advocating for the removal of local governments from the economic sphere to shape markets for global interests.
As a result, a new form of governance—global governance—has emerged, systematically reducing the role of nation-states, particularly in the developing world. This regime takes over many functions previously performed by national governments and experts.
By diminishing the role of national governments, this process strengthens the position of certain beneficiaries, a tactic known as "deck stacking." The consequences are troubling, as many developing countries struggle to address their economic and social challenges due to weak policies and the negative impacts of global economic competition. Sociologist Daniel Bell has argued that these countries are largely incapable of addressing major issues, such as global economic competition or environmental destruction.
Economic consolidation among countries facilitates the free flow of capital, leading to intense competition to attract investment by lowering taxes. This can result in governments being forced to reduce services to their citizens.
Social scientists, particularly anthropologists, highlight that countries cannot simultaneously maintain an independent monetary policy, capital mobility, and a fixed exchange rate—a dilemma known as the "open economy trilemma."
Harvard economist Dani Rodrik, recognising the political dynamics behind this, termed it "The Political Trilemma of the World Economy." This trilemma consists of three elements: integrated national economies, nation-states, and mass politics, and it undercuts the ability of democratic policymakers to craft independent public policies. International policies tend to favour economically strong countries, further weakening the influence of poorer nations.
However, on occasion, international policies can benefit countries and their citizens. For example, Belgium Airlines once practised gender discrimination in hiring cabin crew, but under the European Union's agenda, such practices were prohibited, forcing Belgium to comply.
This kind of international policy influence is not limited to Europe; similar cases exist in South Asia. Understanding how national policies impact neighbouring countries is therefore a critical aspect of public policy analysis.
Public policy and policymaking are becoming increasingly important concerns for anthropologists as they deeply affect the culture of the nation-state. Moreover, as local issues become global and global issues local, the sovereignty of nation-states is significantly undermined in this borderless context. Consequently, anthropologists must focus on the objectivity of governance both within and beyond the state, addressing both national and international issues.
Anas Ibna Rahman is a postgraduate student in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Dhaka.
Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the opinions and views of The Business Standard.
